Design of Search and Rescue Helicopter

Design of Search and Rescue Helicopter Proposal:Search Rescue Helicopter This report highlights the design process of a SR Helicopter system that can rival the competitors in the current market. In order to do so SysML modelling methods have been used to allow us to get a better understanding of the system and the problem at hand. To do so further research was conducted on the leading SR Helicopter in the market, to get an understanding of what type of features are expected from the system. After conducting some requirements capturing, key design features are created for the SR Helicopter. This is done by refining the requirements given to us by the customer/stakeholders. Engineering characteristics are then found from the key design features and represented in the association matrix. This leads on to tradeoff decision that need to be made to optimize the system and satisfy majority of the requirements given by the customer/stakeholders. Systems Design for Helicopters Through this report, we will develop a system design for a military search and rescue helicopter (SR Helicopter) that can be used in missions that is in hostile environments. Following on from this we will conduct a competitive analysis of the designed helicopter to its competitors. The baseline for the new system will be using an existing military helicopter, the HH-60G. 1.1 Background of the HH-60G Pave Hawk The primary mission of the HH-60G pave Hawk helicopter is to recover personnel from hostile environments. In addition, the helicopter also executes search and rescue, medical evacuation, disaster relief, security cooperation, NASA space shuttle support and rescue command and control missions [1]. The HH-60G Pave Hawk has been used in the past for several operations, including the Operation Desert Storm, Operation Allied Force and many more [1]. They have also been used to provide emergency evacuation for U.S. Navy SEAL teams in their operations overseas [1]. HH-60G Pave Hawk has not just been used for military operations but also for helping when natural disasters happen. For example, when there was an earthquake and tsunami in Japan, these helicopters were deployed to provide search and rescue within 24 hours of the disaster [1]. This illustrates how resilient these helicopters are already, so using this as the baseline of the system will ensure that the new system will have a solid foundation. 1.2 Aims The aim of this report is to use system design modelling tools to design and analyse a search and rescue helicopter that met the customers requirements. 1.3 Objectives Conduct some background research on the current systems in the market Refine the requirements given by the customer/stakeholders. Use SysML tools to design and analyse the system. 1.4 Further research Current Features on the HH-60G Pave Hawk include: communication and navigation that includes integrated navigation, global positioning and Doppler navigation systems [2] [1] Satellite communications [1] Secure voice and Have Quick communications [1] Can fit up to 12 troops and six crewmen onboard [1] Automatic flight control systems [2] [3] Night vision goggles [3] Infrared system that allows the pilot to see in low level light (limited visibility) operations [3] [1] Weather radar [1] Anti-ice system on the engine and rotor blades [2] The HH-60G Pave Hawk includes equipment such as retractable in-flight refuelling probe, 7.65mm or 50calibre machineguns and a 3600kg capacity cargo hook. As well as a cargo hook the Pave Hawk also has a hoist cable that is capable of lifting a load up to 270kg from 200 feet [1]. Most of these features are upgraded from the UH-Black Hawk. Which just shows how the HH-60G Pave Hawk is the leading SR Helicopter in the market in this moment in time. 2.1 Narrative A military search and rescue helicopters (SR Helicopter) purpose is to be a quick responder to finding a missing person or people. Naturally it will mean that the helicopter will have to travel at great speeds to reach the area that the missing personnel is assumed to be. But sometimes the mission commander (person who is in charge of the search and rescue mission) will receive new information on the location of the missing or injured people, which will then need to be relayed to the crew in the helicopter. Once the crew reaches their destination they need to have the technology onboard the helicopter that will allow them to locate the missing or injured person/people. This ranges from night vision goggles to radio systems. In some circumstances the missing people will have radios on them, which can be used to hail the helicopter. When the person or people are located the helicopter must be able to retrieve them from any terrain and have the space to accommodate them. In addition the helicopter will be tasked to go into hostile environments, which can put the crew and the helicopter its self through a lot of stress. The stress could range from subzero temperatures, storms and even bullets in a warzone. Usually the helicopters will be armed with weaponry that will defend its self from incoming fire from the ground and air. 2.2 Use case Diagram The use case diagram is used to allow us to identify the key requirements in the system. In addition, due to the fact that this use case is used for behavioural modelling, it allows the user to identify actors, relationships and the system boundary of the system. You can see in the figure 1 that there are multiple actors (stick figures) involved with this system. Initially there is a lot more but they are out of our scope in this moment of time. The use case in figure 1 starts off with the operational requirement, which is Conduct search and rescue in hostile environments, which then branches of into 4 other essential requirements such as Operate in hostile environments and Travel at high speeds. Figure 1: High level use case Moving on, another use case diagram was created, as seen in figure 2, which highlights the remaining functional requirements. At this stage, the use case method sometimes highlights requirements that are derived from each other. For example, from Identify person/people imperil, three other requirements were derived; Identify personnel at night, Long distance communications and Identify personnel in low visibility conditions. Figure 2 Low Level Use case The next stage will be to identify all the different requirements and sort them into functional and non-functional requirements. 2.3 Requirements Identification A systems engineer will use requirements to validate the stakeholders needs are satisfied by the delivered system [4]. Therefore a systems engineer should be able to understand the problem in different layers of perception [4]. Requirements identification also helps the systems engineer to check if he is creating the right system for the stakeholder. 2.4 Organise the requirements by Type The requirements start off with an operational requirement, which highlights the highest level. Usually the operational requirement would be agreed with the primary stakeholder which is derived from the narrative provided earlier on in the report. As well as the operational requirements, the functional and non-functional requirements are then also derived from the narrative. To do this, the narrative is re-written a couple of times, refining the information till the engineer has a set of functional and non-functional requirements [5]. It is essentially an iterative process where the system engineer continuously analysis the requirements and refines each requirement until there is no ambiguity in them. These refined requirements are illustrated further down in the report, in 2.5 Requirements Model. For this scenario, the Operational requirement would be: Conduct a search and rescue operation in hostile environments. The Functional requirements for this scenario would be: Locate person/people imperil Identify person/people imperil Long distance communication Operate in hostile environments Operate in wet conditions Store medical equipment Low unit cost Non-Functional requirements: Fit injured personnel onboard Recover injured personnel from elevated height Operate in hostile environments Operate in cold conditions Operate under fire High operating range High cursing speed High max speed These requirements were then placed into a SysML Requirements table, which allows us to put the required information in a table format. This makes the requirements much more representable and allows us to add in information regarding the requirements, such as, high cruising speed: Shall be able to travel faster than 200mph. The others can be seen in figure 3. It is at this stage were the non-functional requirememnts are added, to ensure that all the requirements can be found in one place. Each requirement is then given a piority rating (under the colloum risk) according to the importance of the requirement. Pioritisation was decided off the combination of the customers needs and how much of an effect the requirement has to the overall operational requirements. Following on from this, the key design features were decided and justified. This a critial section for systems engineers when they are deciding the likely trade-offs. The pioritisation and justifications are what influences the decisions on which trade-offs will be considered. Type Requirement Key Design Feature Piority Justification Non-Functional 1.4 Fit injured personnel onboard Shall be able to accommodate at least 8 people High The HH-60G Pave Hawk is the best helicopter for search and rescue at the moment, which can hold up to 12 people and the six crew members onboard. Taking into consideration this is when all people are healthy and not injured the stakeholders agreed that 8 injured people must be able to fit inside the helicopter. Non-Functional 1.4.1 Recover injured personnel from elevated height Shall be able to recover person imperil from an elevated height of at least 200 feet High The stakeholders wanted the system to have the cabalility to extract injured personnel from an elevated hieght. Non-Functional 1.5.1 Operate in cold conditions Should be able to operate at temperatures more than -30 degrees Medium The system must be able to operate in harsh weather conditions, which includes subzero tempreatures. The engines in the HH-60G Pave Hawk can operate efficiently in -30 degress [6]. As we are creating a system that should be able to rival the best SR helicopters out there, we decided our engines should be able to operate under the same conditions as the HH-60G Pave Hawk. Non-Functional 1.5.3 Operate under fire The fuselage shall protect the crew and vital mechanical parts from bullets less than a 50 Caliber bullet High As the stakeholder highlited the fact that this SR Helicopter would be used in the military as well as natural desasters, it is essential for the system to be able to withstand small arms fire and automatic weapons. This would be anything less than a 50 caliber bullet. Non-Functional 1.8 High operating range Shall have a range more than 650km High Currently the SR helicopter that has the smallest range is the black hawk helicopters, with the range of 592km. The coustmer stated that they would like the helicopter to rival thoes that are the best in the market as well as keeping the cost down, we decided that having the minimum 100km more than the lowest range out there, will give our system the competitive edge it needs. Non-Functional 1.9.1 High Cruising speed The cruising speed is more than 170mph Low Looking at the curising speed of the HH-60G Pave Hawk, which is at 184mph. This system needs to rival it as well as keeping the cost low. So the best way to do that is keep the cruising speed relatively close the to the Pave Hawk, but reducing it slightly to lower the costs. Non-Functional 1.9.2 High Max speed The max speed is more than 200mph High Looking at the max speed of the HH-60G Pave Hawk, which is at 220mph [1]. This system needs to rival it as well as keeping the cost low. So the best way to do that is keep the max speed relatively close the to the Pave Hawk, but reducing it slightly to lower the costs. Non-Functional 1.7 Low unit cost Unit Price shall be less than $40.1 Million High Analysing the market, the best helicopter (HH-60G Pave Hawk) has a unit cost of $40.1 Million. So keeping the price less than the Pave Hawk, will make it more appealing to the coustomers. Figure 4: Key Design Features Justification 2.5 Requirements Model (Relations) From the requirements table in figure 3, a requirements model was created showing the relationships between each requirement. As you can see in figure 5, all the requirements can be seen mapped back to the operational requirement. This shows the relationships between each of the requirements and how they are vital for the system to achieve its operational requirement. In addition, this tool allows us to highlight the requirements that are derived from other requirements. For example, in figure 5, requirement 1.5 Operate in hostile environments, has three other requirements that are derived from it. 1.5.1 Operate in cold conditions, 1.5.2 Operate in wet conditions and 1.5.3 Operate under fire. Something that should be noted is that these three requirements are not all functional requirements. Even though 1.5.1 is a functional requirement 1.5.1 and 1. 5.2 are both non-functional requirements. 3.1 SysML Block Definition Diagram (BDD) Block Definition Diagram is used to define the different types of physical units as well as intangible entities [7] [4] [5]. Furthermore, the BDD defines each blocks characteristic in terms of it structural and behavioral features [7]. The diagram can be used to plot the requirement constraints that have been identified previously in the report [4] [5]. Finally, the BDD allows the user to define the relationships between each block, for example the hierarchical relationships [7]. Figure 6 is the Block Definition Diagram for the SR Helicopter System, which as seen, has eight main blocks: Fuselage, Power Plant, Rotor Blades, Battery, Hoist Cable, Visual Software, Radio system, Armament. The Fuselage block is associated to two other blocks (which is represented with a straight line, that has no arrow at the end), Hoist Cable and Armament. The reason for this is because both the Armament and Hoist Cable is connected to the Fuselage. The reason for there not being a direct association line between these three is due to the fact that there is no signal flow between these subsystems. On the other hand, if we look at the Battery and the Fuselage there is a direct association line since the battery will power the lights and other electrical equipment inside the fuselage. In addition to the fuselage the battery also has a direct association line with the visual software, radio system, hoist cable and power plant. The reason for this is because all these subsystems need electrical power to work and carry out their operations. Each block has specific operations that it needs to carry out, in order for the overall system to achieve its goal. Visual software must be allow the pilot to locate and identify the person/people imperil (see requirement 1.1 and 1.2), in order to do so it has to have the capabilities to see in the dark, which means the subsystem needs to generate night vision display. By looking at the rest of the blocks it is now easily identifiable, of their purpose in the overall system and how each subsystem aids the overall system in achieving the requirements. 3.2 SysML Internal Block Diagram An Internal block diagram can be interpreted the complete opposite of the block definition diagram due to the reason that an IBD is a white box or internal view of a system block [4] [5]. The blocks in the BDD are represented in the IBD as parts. This just means that this diagram illustrates the flow properties between each subsystem. Figure 7 is the IBD for the SR helicopter system which can be traced back to the Block Definition Diagram in chapter 3.1. As you can see in figure 7, the power plant block has a port, which links to the Fuel flow property. This illustrates how the fuel is supplied from a different part of the system (Fuel Tank) that is outside of our scope. After receiving electrical power from the battery, the power plant (engines) can then ignite the fuel which then generates power. This power is then transferred to the Rotor Blades, which is not only represented with an association line but the Direction label indicates where the energy flow is going. So, from the power plant the power is going out into the rotor blades, which is then transferred into torque. This torque then generates lift, allowing the helicopter to fly. Moving onto another section of the diagram, the Fuselage has only one flow property, which is people. The reason for this is because the fuselage has one main purpose, which is to allow people to enter and exit the helicopter. Even though flow property is considered the flow of energy, in this case people are considered a flow of energy. The flow property people is then connected to the torque flow property of the hoist cable, as the torque energy lifts the people from the ground into the helicopter. Finally, if we continue analyzing the fuselage, you can see that the flow property is only linked to one other flow property, but there is still an association line between the fuselage and the armament. The reason for this is because we know that the armament in placed inside the fuselage so these two subsystems are connected, but as far as we know there is no flow of energy between them. Figure 7: Internal Block Diagram 3.3 Association Matrix In this section of the report we will explore the key design features that was provided by the costumer [5]. These key features are the ones that influence the system requirements significantly. To illustrate this, the key features were matched with its corresponding engineering characteristics, which allowed us to figure out the strength of their connection [5]. Figuring out the strength of their connection lead on to us deciding what the tradeoffs were. If we analyses figure 8, we can see that the engineering characteristics are categorized into five different sections: Helicopter Fuselage Amour Armament Power Plant The Helicopter category represents the whole system, which allows us to illustrate the relevance of each engineering characteristic with the overall system [8] [5]. For instance, the volume of the fuselage is affected by the height, width and length of the helicopter as well as the other engineering characteristics from the other sections. Looking at the Power characteristic, we can see that it is affected by weight of the armament, range and weight of the power plant, the material density of the amour and the weight of the helicopter its self. This indicates that this particular engineering characteristic needs to be taken into careful consideration when designing the system. Similarly, the Range of the power plant is also affected by a majority of the other engineering characteristics. Keeping these two engineering characteristics in mind, if we look into the key design features, we can see that Power and Range (of the Power Plant) affects quite a few of the key design features that are ranked at a priority of 5. Therefore, the tradeoffs we will be analyzing will be the ones highlighted in yellow. 3.4 Block Constraint Diagram From the previous section of the report (3.3), the key design features that have been chosen are Unit cost Figure 9, illustrates the Block constraint diagram created to determine the tradeoffs between the engineering characteristics. It does this by determining which engineering characteristic directly affect the key design features [5]. The blocks in figure 9 can be considered as functions, which is illustrated by the constraints subheading in the block. Using the, Unit cost 650km, the function of this is mathematically calculated with the combination of the variables; Fuel consumption, Fuel capacity, Weight, Engine Power, Helicopter speed and Air resistance. 3.5 Parametric Diagram Similarly, in a sequential viewpoint is used to help with the analysis of the tradeoffs. Figure 10 is a Parametric diagram which demonstrates the engineering characteristics that are used to calculate the range and unit cost functions [9] [4]. From the diagram and research, it became clear that if you increase the power of the engines the range of the SR Helicopter systems starts to decrease. Looking at the function of the unit cost, you can see that Engine Power is included in the function, meaning that if you decrease the Engine Power the unit cost will reduce with it. This illustrates the tradeoffs of the engineering characteristic and key design features. Further detail in how to optimize the tradeoffs will be done in the next section. Trade offs must be made to ensure that the system satisfies majority of the requirements that was stated at the beginning of this report. As stated in the previous section of this report (3.4), the parameters we will be focusing on when trying to optimise the tradeoffs are Motor Power, Unit Cost 650km. To illustrate where the optimal point will be between the three tradeoffs, a graph was created with all three parameters. Figure 11: Optimisation Graph The graph above indicates the area where the optimal tradeoff will be. This was calculated with the research information on the different engines that are used in the market and their outputs. You can see that two main competitors that were used, the UH-Black Hawk and the HH-60G Pave Hawk, are indicated with the red and blue lines. During the research, the motor power of each helicopter was looked up and compared to the range that they produced. After gathering enough data, a graph was created that would indicate the relationships between the findings. You can see that as the motor power increases the range of the engines start to increase after a certain point. In doing so the cost of the system starts to increase dramatically too. The report has explored how the current systems that are in the market, such as the HH-60G Pave Hawk and the UH-Black Hawk. Which allowed us to get a better understanding of what type of competitors the SR Helicopter will face. The next stage was to define the stakeholder and user requirements, which was achieved in the methods section. Creating the requirements table allowed us to verify and validate that we created the right system and the system that the customers asked for. To create the requirements table and other diagrams such as the BDD, IBD etc., SysML modeling languages were used, which allowed us to analys the system designed. Finally, the report comes to the following recommendations. Since the requirement was to keep cost as low but keeping the SR Helicopter in the competitive race in the market, the maximum cost for the SR Helicopter was reduced just below the Pave Hawk, at $38 Million. Reducing the cost meant that the motor power was also reduced, which in return reduced the range. The motor power didnt suffer that much on reduction but the range drop was more significant. Reducing the motor power by just 100 Shaft Horse Power meant that the range dropped from 900km to 730km. On the other hand, this is still acceptable as the requirements stated that the range had to be greater than 650km, which it is and with the shaft horse power being at 1,800 shaft horse power the engine can still reach maximum speeds above 200mph. [1] HH-60G Pave Hawk, , . [Online]. Available: http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/224/Article/104508/hh-60g-pave-hawk.aspx. [Accessed 15 3 2017]. [2] S. E. |. .-6. P. H. {{cite journal |last= Young |first= Susan H.H. and S. H. S. E. Young, 2008 USAF Almanac, Air Force Magazine, vol. 91, no. 5, p. 155-156, . [3] Airforce-technology Editors, Kable Intelligence Limited, 2017. [Online]. Available: http://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/sikorsky-hh-60g-pave-hawk-combat-search-rescue-helicopter/. [Accessed 8th March 2017]. [4] O. D. A. . C. Guillaume FINANCE, SysML Modelling Language explained, 7 October 2010. [Online]. Available: http://www.omgsysml.org/SysML_Modelling_Language_explained-finance.pdf. [5] D. N. M. C. Dickerson, Architecture and principles of systems engineering, CRC Press, 2010. [6] A. O. Hyg, Cold Exposure During Helicopter Rescue Operations in the Western Alps, 01 January 2003. [Online]. Available: https://academic.oup.com/annweh/article/47/1/7/131313/Cold-Exposure-During-Helicopter-Rescue-Operations. [7] T. Editors, Block Definition Diagram (bdd), [Online]. Available: https://www.threesl.com/cradle/help/System%20Modelling/other/bdd.htm. [Accessed 5th March 2017]. [8] P. H. I. A. P. D. J. Hatley, Process for system architecture and, 2000: Dorset House Pub. [9] D. W. e. al, Systems Engineering Handbook: A Guide for System Life cycle processes and activites. [10] Wikiwand Editors, General Electric T700, [Online]. Available: http://www.wikiwand.com/en/General_Electric_T700. [Acces

Age Related Changes That Occur in the Cardiovascular System

Age Related Changes that Occur in the Cardiovascular System Age Related Changes that Occur in the Cardiovascular System In the normal conduction of the heart the electrical impulse starts in the SA node, also called the pacemaker of the heart. The electrical impulse travels through the right atrium and through the Bachmann’s bundle into the left atrium. This stimulates the atria to contract. Next the signal travel to the AV node. The AV node slightly delays the signal. This delay is needed for the heart to beat properly.The Cardiovascular SystemWithout this delay the atria and ventricles would beat at the same time. The electrical signal then travels to the Bundle of His where it is split into the signals going to the right and left ventricle. The signal travels through the left and the right Bundle Branch to contract the ventricles. As the body ages there are changes in the cardiovascular system. Some of these changes include major changes in heart rate, blood vessels become more stiff and thicker, heart valves become thicker and more stiff, the SA node loses cells and developes fibrous tissue.One major change is the decrease in the elasticity of the aorta and great arteries. The normal aorta allows for normal expansion during systole. Left ventricular ejection creates a pressure wave which travels the length of the aorta to the periphery. The pulse generated at a peripheral vessel is the result of this pressure wave and is not a reflection of blood flow. The velocity of the pressure wave is termed the pulse wave velocity. Age-related aortic stiffening causes an increase in the pulse wave velocity.The wave velocity in the elderly results in an elevation in the systolic blood pressure. The pulse wave is faster resulting in the reflected wave reaching the ascending aorta in the late systole rather than early diastole. Coronary artery disease also called CAD is the leading cause of death in both men and women. CAD is the leading type of heart disease in th e United States. CAD is the hardening and build up of plaque inside the arteries that supply the heart with blood. The main part of plaque is cholesterol followed by other minerals.This type of build up is called atherosclerosis. As this grows it occludes the arteries which in turn decreases the amount of oxygen reaching the heart. This can lear to chest pain and heart attacks. The risk of CAD increases with age. 37% of people in the age range of 65-74 years old and 48% of those over the age of 75 (REF 1) reported having this type of illness. In the 75 years and over, more than one third of men and approximately one quarter of women are currently living with coronary artery disease. Hypertension is more common in the 60 and over range.Hypertension is define as a blood pressure of 140/90 or greater. Hypertension is related to the loss of elasticity in the aorta. Blood pressure mainly systolic pressure rises with age. In a community based study 90% of midlife adults with normal blood pressure developed hypertension in late life. (Ref 2) Arrhythmia is an abnormal heart beat. It’s more common in the aging adult. Arrhythmias occur when the electrical signals on the heart are not working correctly and making the heart beat in irregular rhythm. Many different things can lead to arrhythmias.Cardiac arrhythmias can be caused by a heart attack, scarring from prior heart attack, blocked arteries (CAD), hypertension, changes to your heart's structure, such as from cardiomyopathy. Most common arrhythmias in the elderly are tachycardia and bradycardia. Tachycardia is a heart rate greater than 100 beats per minute and bradycardia is less than 60 beats per minute. Tachycardia is most commonly caused by age-related deterioration of the heart or an underlying medical condition. It is a disruption of the normal electrical signal. Bradycardia is caused by changes to the heart related to aging.It is also a disruption of the normal electrical signal. Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a condition caused by the weakening of the heart and the cardiovascular system. It develops when the heart is not able to pump enough blood. Some causes of CHF would include, narrowed arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle – coronary artery disease, past heart attack, or myocardial infarction, with scar tissue that interferes with the heart muscle’s normal work, high blood pressure, heart valve disease, primary disease of the heart muscle itself, called cardiomyopathy.High blood pressure is the leading cause of CHF in the elderly. High blood bressure put high demands on the heart to pump blood. This prolonged demand weakens the heart muscle over time. The heart doesn't pump as efficiently as it should, the blood slows down and less blood is pumped. The blood returning to the heart backs up in the veins forcing fluid from the blood vessels into tissues of the feet and legs. The swelling that results is call â€Å"edema†. Bibliography Medline Plu s, Aging changes in the heart and blood vessels, Retrieved April 1, 2013 From http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/ency/article/004006. htmJenkins, Kemnitz, Tortora (2010) Anatomy and Physiology From Science to Life Danvers, MA: John Wiley and Sons Inc Pat Joiner-Myers, Mosby’s Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing and Health Professions 8th Edition Medscape, Cardiovascular Physiology- Changes With Aging , Retrieved April 1, 2013 From http://www. medscape. com/viewarticle/450564_2 References 1. Office for National Statistics: General Lifestyle Survey (2007) www. statistics. gov. uk/statbase/product. asp? vlnk=5756 2. Vasan RS, Beiser A, Seshadri S et al. Residual lifetime risk for developing hypertension in middle-aged women and men. JAMA 287, 1003–1010 (2002).

Overview of Conflicts of Interest Essay

Confidentiality is also something that some volunteers of the Remedios AIDS Foundation should also learn. Although many officers of this NGO advocate confidentiality, many of its volunteers could still breach this ethical code, thus further isolating prospective clients. It is a well-known fact that the life of the first Filipino AIDS victim was made into a commercial movie, and had attracted thousands of audience – making it seem like a carnival show. This is precisely the kind of stigma that HIV/AIDS victims is afraid of, and something that the Remedios AIDS Foundation – and many other NGOs dealing with this disease — is trying to work out. The Remedios AIDS Foundation is also faced with the dilemma on how to conduct research without exposing the patients to various risks (CIOMS 1993). As an NGO that do social and medical research, it has to ensure that HIV/AIDS patients must also benefit from its studies. It is unethical to expose subjects to the risks of participating in a research study unless the design is sufficiently rigorous that the results will be valid and generalizable (U. S. National Commission for the Protection of the Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research). Another critical ethical consideration that must be dealt with accordingly by the Remedios AIDS Foundation is how to maintain objectivity in front of emotional patients. Culturally speaking, the Filipino people tend to be emphatic of each other’s plights, thus it is not an isolated case to find volunteers who are emotionally affected by the conditions of HIV/AIDS patients. This eventually leads them to quit from their volunteer work and/or to be personally involved in their patients’ cases, which often clouds their critical judgment. Applications The best thing to do here is to implement an intensive and extensive information campaign on AIDS and the advantages of belonging to a core group that can emotionally and physically assist the AIDS victims. Moreover, volunteers of the Remedios AIDS Foundation should also undergo intensive training and education on how to properly deal with HIV/AIDS patients. It must be noted that these patients are already wrapped in insecurity and treating them with slight uncertainty will only decrease their self-confidence. To meet the ethical obligations for research, on the other hand, this NGO must conduct studies whose sample sizes must be adequate. Suitable study endpoints must also be selected. It must also ensure that clinical trials must undergo preliminary laboratory and animal research. It must always take into consideration that research with human participants raises ethical concerns because people accept risks and inconvenience to advance scientific knowledge and to benefit others (Lo 2000). Social researchers of this NGO must also learn how to use language that is not offensive to study participants. Conclusion As one of the NGOs at the forefront of combating HIV/AIDS in the Philippines, the Remedios AIDS Foundation is faced with many ethical dilemmas that it is trying to overcome one by one. Although it is difficult to do in this largely Catholic country where promiscuity is being strongly detested and HIV/AIDS is being associated with promiscuity, it continues to embark on a rigorous warfare against HIV/AIDS in the country. Everything is an uphill battle because social norms and religiosity keep HIV/AIDS patients from coming forward in the open to seek for help. The NGO is looking for ways and means to solve this problem without losing its focus. As the officers and volunteers of the Remedios AIDS Foundation are also mostly Catholics, they also have to be able to move around their religious beliefs in order to stop being discriminatory to HIV/AIDS patients. They also have to ensure that their researchers are well-trained to avoid offending study participants and this can only be done by conducting intensive trainings. Lastly, objectivity should also be encouraged to avoid personal involvement in patients’ predicament. This last ethical issue should be encouraged to avoid conflict of interest on the part of the NGO. In the end, the officers and volunteers of this NGO are cognizant of the fact that unless these ethical concerns are addressed, their fight against HIV/AIDS will never be successful. References: Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS). (1993) International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects. Geneva. de Bruyn, T. (1998) HIV/AIDS and Discrimination: A Discussion Paper. Montreal: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network & Canadian AIDS Society. Lo B. (2000) Overview of Conflicts of Interest. In Resolving Ethical Dilemmas: A Guide for Clinicians. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Reproductive Health Outlook. (1997) HIV/AIDS Key Issues. Retrieved May 30, 2006 from http://www. rho. org/html/hiv_aids_keyissues. html U. S. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1978) The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research. Washington, D. C. : Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare. The Offical Website of the Remedios AIDS Foundation. (1991) http://www.remedios.com.ph/

Freud s Theory Of Psychology - 1226 Words

In psychology, a person’s personality is how the person feels, thinks, and behaves. Psychoanalysis was a theory Sigmund Freud discovered. It was his theory for treating psychological disorders and he did this by using a person’s unconscious mind. He suggested that there was three different stages of awareness in a person’s conscious mind. Level one is consciousness is anytime we’re alert. When we are conscious we are aware of our emotions, sensations, thoughts, and perception. Level two is preconscious contains all the memories, feelings, experiences and perceptions that we are not thinking about at that moment but can easily be brought to consciousness. Level three which is the most important level is the unconscious. Freud believed that†¦show more content†¦The ego is the logical, rational, and realistic part of the personality. The ego evolves from the id and draws its energy from the id. One of the egos functions is to satisfy the ids urges. The ego is mostly conscious and acts according to the reality principle. When a child is around five or six years old, the superego is formed. Superego has two parts, the conscience consists of all the behaviors for which the child has been punished and about which he or she feels guilty. And the ego ideal comprises the behaviors for which the child had been praised and rewarded and about which he or she feels pride and satisfaction. Freud asserted that the sexual instinct is present at birth and develops through a series of psychosexual stages, providing the driving force for all feelings and behaviors. The stages are the oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, and genital stage. One of the most controversial features of Freud’s stage theory is the Oedipus complex, this is a conflict that arises during the phallic stage in which a child is sexually attracted to the opposite sex parent and feels hostility towards the same sex parent. Freud is credited with calling attention to the unconscious and the role of defense mechanisms. Scientists have discovered what exactly self-esteem is and why is it so important. The sense of self-esteem is influences by comparisons of one’s real self to ones desired self. Most people’s self-esteem is based